In the majority of CCD applications, light reaches the CCD through a lens- or mirror-based optical system. However, in some situations it is advantageous to use an image-preserving fiber optic bundle in place of conventional imaging optics. Significant gains in the amount of light collected can be achieved by directly coupling the light source to the CCD using fiber optics. Depending on the amount of demagnification, the gain in light collected can exceed 10x that of a f/1.2 lens.
Imaging fiber optics are commonly used to couple light from x-ray or neutron scintillator screens, chemiluminescent markers, image intensifiers, or streak tubes. Fibers can be bonded to most front-illuminated CCDs as well as some back-thinned devices.
The Coherent Fiber Bundle
A coherent fiber bundle is a collection of single fiber optic
strands assembled together so that the relative orientation of
the individual fibers is maintained throughout the length of the
bundle. The result is that any pattern of illumination incident
at the input end of the bundle re-emerges from the output end
with the image preserved. Imaging fiber bundles can be made in
a variety of shapes and sizes, with the most common having a circular
cross section. Magnification can be achieved by the use of tapered
fibers in the bundle.
Photometrics' Fiber Bonding Process
In order to successfully couple light from an imaging fiber bundle to the CCD,
the CCD and 
fiber bundle must be
in very close proximity. Light emerges from the individual fibers at large angles,
and a gap between fiber and CCD will lead to a loss in resolution. Photometrics
uses a proprietary bonding process to minimize the distance without sacrificing
CCD performance. This process directly bonds the fiber to the CCD without oil
layers or the use of intermediate fiber stubs that introduce losses in spatial
resolution and transmission efficiency. In addition, the bond is stable and
will survive the repeated thermal cycling that occurs in HCCD camera systems.
Photometrics' continuous innovation in fiber bonding has extended available
fiber tapers to over 145mm in diameter, coupled fibers to the largest commercially
available scientific sensors, and even mated fiber bundles to high efficiency
back-illuminated sensors.
Efficiency vs. Magnification
Besides the transmission losses through a large piece of glass,
fiber-optic bundles have a transmission loss due to changes in
the fiber diameter as light traverses the bundle. When light travels
down a tapered fiber, a decreasing reflectance angle results in
some of the light paths exiting the fiber. This appears as a loss
in "effective" numerical aperture (NA). The relative
loss between fibers with different magnifications can be estimated
as the ratio of their magnifications squared. The larger the fiber
bundle's magnification, the greater the reduction in effective
NA. Fiber bundles with a 1:1 magnification, known as "stubs,"
provide the highest throughput. Applications requiring the highest
possible light collection efficiency benefit most by using large
CCDs to reduce the amount of demagnification required.
Limitations of Imaging with Fiber
Optics
A disadvantage of fiber imaging systems is that field of view
is limited by the size of available fiber bundles. Currently,
the largest available fiber optic tapered bundle is 160 mm in
diameter at the large end. However, to enable imaging of even
larger areas, Photometrics can create a mosaic of fiber bundles
which are connected to multiple CCDs. This assembly can either
be packaged in a single camera head, or into multiple camera heads,
depending upon the number of bundles in the mosaic and whether
or not the bundles are tapered. A second limitation of fiber optics
is the introduction of distortion and non-uniformity of response.
These defects are introduced during the fibers manufacturing process.
Because these defects are static, they can be corrected through
image processing. For example, response non-uniformity can be
handled in most cases by flat-field correction. Gross distortion
can be corrected by appropriate scaling and warping of the image
data. Shear distortion, sudden dislocation in the alignment of
adjacent fibers, is more difficult to correct for due to its discontinuous
nature. Photometrics fiber defect specifications are available
for customers requiring detailed information.
Fiber Optic Options
Many of our cameras are available with imaging fiber optics. Fiber
bundles range in magnification from 1:1 fiber stubs to large 6:1
fiber tapers, and in diameters up to 160mm. Supported CCDs vary
from 512 x 512 pixels to 2k x 2k pixels. Fiber bundles are available
with extramural absorption (EMA) fibers to improve contrast, and
low-thorium glass to reduce background from radioisotopes. At
a customer's request, Photometrics will also attach scintillating
fiber optic faceplates to the front of fiber optic tapers.
